Clashes between rebel movement and security forces escalated into civil war, prompting international military action. Early month counter-offensive by pro-Qaddafi forces reversed previous rebel gains; govt forces 10-14 March recaptured several key towns, including Ras Lanuf, Zawiya, Brega. Qaddafi’s son Saif al-Islam 10 March pledged to crush rebellion. Following 12 March call for intervention by Arab League, UNSC 17 March approved no-fly zone, authorised use of “all necessary measures” to protect civilians, whilst prohibiting foreign occupation. International coalition led by UK, U.S., France 19 March began missile, air strikes against military installations, aircraft; also targeted govt forces attacking Benghazi and other rebel-held towns. NATO 27 March assumed control of all international military operations. Situation unclear late month with continued heavy fighting following rebel counter-offensive, despite govt ceasefire declaration 18 March. FM Moussa Koussa 30 March arrived in UK, claimed to be defecting from regime; reports suggested other senior figures planned to defect. Reports late month suggested Libyan envoy in UK for discussions with govt. France 10 March recognised Benghazi-based National Libyan Council as legitimate Libyan govt; Council 23 March appointed Abdul Mahmoud Jebril interim PM. UNHCR late month estimated 350,000 refugees had fled. ICC prosecutor 2 March announced probe into events in Libya following Feb UNSC referral.

Hundreds feared killed, thousands injured during ongoing violent unrest after demonstrations against Muammar Qadaffi’s 41-year rule began 16 Feb in Benghazi. Tens of thousands protested throughout country over following days, despite govt 17 Feb announcing release of political prisoners, formation of committee to consider reforms. Tensions escalated starting 17 Feb as security forces and mercenaries reportedly attacked protesters; worst violence reported in Benghazi, Tripoli. Qadaffi’s son Saif al Islam 21 Feb warned of civil war as unrest spread to Tripoli; aerial attacks on protesters started same day. Several top officials, high-level diplomats, military officers 22 Feb onward defected. Qadaffi 22 Feb appeared on state television defying calls to quit. Leaders worldwide denounced violence; UNSC 23 Feb strongly condemned crackdown, 27 Feb voted unanimously to impose sanctions, refer Libya to ICC. Late-month reports of full-scale rebellion with large parts of country under opposition control. Self-appointed opposition leaders 26 Feb declared interim govt, National Libyan Council, to be headed by former justice minister Mustafa Abd el-Jalil. UNHCR 27 Feb estimated 100,000 refugees had fled Libya, most to Egypt or Tunisia.

At least 11 reportedly killed in violent clashes 3-7 Nov in Kufra, southeast, between security forces battling members of Tabu tribe protesting discrimination – regional leaders later disputed scale of violence.

Al-Qaeda’s second in command, Ayman al-Zawahiri, announced Fighting Islamic Group in Libya joining al-Qaeda; called for holy war against North African leaders and their allies 3 November.

At least 10 killed in riots outside Italian consulate in Benghazi 17 February after Italian reform minister Roberto Calderoli appeared on television wearing t-shirt depicting Danish newspaper cartoons of Prophet Mohammed. Libyan Interior Minister Nasr al-Mabrouk suspended as investigation launched into police conduct during riots.

European Union lifted sanctions and eased arms embargo 11 October as part of ongoing improvement in relations. Germany and Italy expressed keenness to set up immigration “holding” camps in Libya. Tripoli hosted summit meeting on Darfur rejecting “international intervention” in Sudan. Libya claimed to have arrested 17 al-Qaeda-linked individuals 11 October.

U.S. lifted remaining trade sanctions 20 September and released $1.3 billion frozen assets; EU agreed 22 September to end arms embargo. In first high-level meeting in 25 years U.S. Secretary of State Colin Powell met Libyan foreign minister 23 September. Libya claimed deserved seat on UN Security Council.

Compensation deal agreed 10 August for 1986 Berlin disco bombing, further opening way for improved European- Libyan relations. IAEA report on Libyan nuclear disclosure praised Libyan cooperation while warning gaps remained.

U.S. announced 11 June investigation into reports Libya plotted to assassinate Crown Prince Abdullah of Saudi Arabia in 2003. U.S. nevertheless reopened liaison office in Tripoli following visit of Assistant Secretary of State William Burns. Negotiations continue on compensation for Libyan-sponsored 1986 Berlin disco bombing.

U.S. undersecretary of state for arms control John Bolton termed Muammar Qadaffi’s decision to ban military trade with Iran, North Korea and Syria an “important step forward”. IAEA reported evidence Libya received 2 tons of uranium from North Korea in 2001; denied by North Korea. IAEA said questions remained on Libya’s nuclear program. U.S. State Department kept Libya on list of non-cooperative states on terrorism, but hinted arms embargo could be eased.